(“Theyyam,” photo by Shagil Kannur, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=86548269)

Losing Touch with the Motherland

In my previous article, I wrote about the first era of the perumal in Kerala. In this article, I explore the next era and subsequent events in Egypt.

Following the central crisis of the First Intermediate Period, the Middle Kingdom rose to power in Egypt through a process of military and political expansion initiated by a line of provincial rulers from the south. Around 2050 BCE, the Theban ruler Mentuhotep II defeated a coalition of nomarchs to unite north and south Egypt for the first time in almost two hundred years. The military nature of the unification led to the emergence of a professional army different from the Old Kingdom’s militia system. With this newfound military power, Egypt’s colonial ambitions were restored, as evidenced by a push to expand Egypt’s boundaries into Nubia and the Levant.

More importantly for Kerala, the uncoordinated exploratory enterprises of the Old Kingdom were replaced by a better-oiled trade machinery. While Egyptian oceanic ventures on the Red Sea continued to seek luxury goods, their ships were made of cedar harvested in the mountains of the eastern Mediterranean, showing a close working relationship between Egyptian administrators and Phoenician traders on the Red Sea. Egypt had become adept at facilitating trade, and they used their newfound military and commercial talents to stabilize their colony in faraway Kerala. But there was a sense of dissociation too, perhaps because it was more cost-effective to obtain Kerala’s luxury commodities through Phoenician traders who were better experts at mounting ocean expeditions with their enormous fleet of ships. It is very likely that with the aid of the Phoenicians, Egypt undertook many more ocean voyages during the Middle Kingdom than in the past. Yet, ironically, it was the Phoenicians’ presence that finally broke the tenuous bond between Egypt and its far-flung colony across the Indian Ocean.

During the early part of the Middle Kingdom, the chieftains of Kerala felt the necessity of a perumal and according to Keralolpatthi, went to the “homeland of the king.” This “homeland” was different from the locus of power in the previous era of the Old Kingdom, which had been in Memphis; in the new era of the Middle Kingdom, the locus of power was centered around Thebes in southern Egypt. The only reason that the chieftains’ desire for a perumal was revived precisely at this time could only be because the Middle Kingdom pharaohs had reinstated contact with their trans-oceanic colony. Indeed, records indicate that Pharaoh Mentuhotep III revived the port of Mersa Gawasis on the Red Sea during the eighth year of his reign.

Whether Mentuhotep III sent any perumal to Kerala is unknown; what is told in Keralolpatthi is that three perumal reigned during this time, the first two for twelve years each and the last one, Cheraman, for thirty-six years. But eventually, Cheraman thirsted for his homeland in the waning years of his golden reign. The tale of his return, reading like another version of the biblical story of Joseph and Potiphar, tells of an affair between his mistress and his steward, a man by the name Patamalanayar. When the latter refused her advances, she filed a false complaint with Cheraman, who sentenced Patamalanayar to death. But at the last moment, Patamalanayar was saved by a “ship sent by the angels,” a thinly veiled reference to an Egyptian vessel from the motherland, and he “escaped to heaven.” Before his departure, he advised a remorseful Cheraman to seek a Phoenician for the journey home, an indication that Egyptian ships embarked on ocean voyages much less frequently than Phoenician ones. Cheraman, homesick for Egypt in his old age, met with all the nobles of the land, divided the territory among them, and departed with the Phoenicians to his beloved homeland. Concurrent with his departure from Kerala, there was a reorganization of the central administration in Egypt, and the office of the perumal was abandoned in favor of focusing on local affairs. Although Middle Kingdom Egypt continued trade relations with Kerala through the Phoenicians, no more perumal from Egypt ever ruled Kerala thereafter.

The Phoenicians settled by Cheraman in Kerala continued to carry on trade. They did not confine themselves to Egypt but spread the scent of Kerala’s spices all over their known world. Perhaps due to their increased prosperity from this and similar enterprises, they were drawn in large numbers to the Egyptian Nile delta. Archaeological record shows that large Phoenician settlements emerged in and around the Nile delta city of Avaris during this time. After the reign of Amenemhat IV, the last king of the Twelfth Dynasty, ocean expeditions by Egyptians on the Red Sea ceased. Indeed, this port had been used and reused over at least 700 years, from the late Old Kingdom to the numerous expeditions during the Middle Kingdom, and briefly into the early New Kingdom.

The Phoenicians, and many years later, the Minaeans of Arabia, and the Sabaens of Ethiopia, continued to bring Kerala’s produce to lucrative markets in Egypt and beyond the Red Sea. When the Sea Peoples swept across the Aegean and destroyed great littoral kingdoms of those days, the Phoenicians alone survived on the Mediterranean coasts and presumably continued their Red Sea enterprises, creating a vast mercantile network and influence that would span another thousand years. When Hebrews rose to power during the reign of Solomon around 1000 BCE, the eastern gulf of the Red Sea at Edom fell into their hands, opening up more trade opportunities on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.

Meanwhile, Egypt focused on expanding into the Levant during the New Kingdom and achieved great success during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties (ca. 1550–1307 BCE, 1307–1196 BCE), when the empire reached its zenith. Pharaoh Hatshepsut’s famous expedition to Punt around 1400 BCE was part of a brief revitalization attempt during this era to recapture Egypt’s past maritime glory. At its peak during the New Kingdom, Egypt ruled over an estimated 400,000 square miles of the Middle East, from Khartoum in modern Sudan to Carchemish on the Euphrates River and westward to the Siwa Oasis.

But by around 1196–1070 BCE, internal rivalries between Thebes and Delta nomarchs factionalized the political landscape of the nation. City-states emerged as pockets of regional power, causing the Egyptian empire to slowly disintegrate from within. In 525 BCE, Persian king Cambyses occupied a much-weakened Egypt and made the once-glorious kingdom of the pharaohs into a mere province of his vast Persian empire. Following this Persian conquest, the ancient Egyptian religion went into a slow and gradual decay, a transformation from a soul-filled prayer of the heart to seemingly meaningless words mumbled alongside empty rites unsupported by theology and bereft of vitality.

Around 330 BCE, when the Greek general Alexander defeated Persian king Darius III, Egypt became part of Greece under Ptolemy I Soter, who started the Ptolemaic Period. By this time, following long Persian subjugation, the Egyptian religion exercised some remnants of influence “only on condition of being melted down and re-modeled in the crucible of Greek philosophy.” A few religious philosophers perhaps completed this transfusion, but the great mass of the people returned to their simple practices, which formed the crux of their religion diluted by the passage of thousands of years. Around 30 BCE, Egypt under Cleopatra fell to the Romans. The Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire, under whose dominion the last of the Egyptian temples closed in 553 CE. By then, there was hardly anybody alive who understood hieroglyphs or cared for any Egyptian god. Finally, following the Islamic conquest by Arabs, Egypt’s pharaonic past was eviscerated completely and entirely.

Today, “[t]here is no real continuity in culture and attitude between ancient and modern Egypt. No pharaonic literature which could form the core of a modern Egyptian culture has survived. . . Egypt in the end [was only] a chapter in the book of Arab glory. [Pharaonic Egypt] is a distant, dead past to [modern Egyptians] with few connections to the present.” Meanwhile, in the tiny erstwhile Egyptian colony of Kerala, sealed for many centuries from the tumultuous history of its neighbors in the Indian subcontinent by its unique topography, thriving on the strength of its global Indian Ocean trade, the ancient culture of Middle Kingdom Egypt coasted intact into the modern age, riding on the wave of its people’s unconscious longing for their bygone, glorious home.

The mountains, the sea, and the sands of Kerala silently watched the raucous tides come and go: Egyptians at the height of their prowess; followed by Hebrews at the height of theirs; then by Phoenicians; Greeks; Romans; Jains; Buddhists; Brahmins; Southeast Asians; and Thomas the Apostle, the touch of Jesus still warm on his hands. Then came Arabs, Africans, Chinese, and a torrent of Europeans: Portuguese, French, Dutch, and English. Democracy gave way to oligarchies, then to monarchies, and finally returned to democracy. The land tasted anarchy, republicanism, colonialism, communism, capitalism, and socialism. All the major cultures of the world touched the coast of Kerala. Today, the land as it stands bears no resemblance to the wild salty marshes encountered by the first settlers; nor do the people as they live bear any similarities to their diverse ancestors. With Kerala’s entry into the dominant culture around it, the remnants of its immigrant soul have disappeared along with a diaspora’s sentimental reverence for its glorious past. Only some vestigial relics survive in bits and pieces, like flickers from an ancient time.

Epilogue

To all my readers, farewell! This is the last of my series on Kerala’s ancient history. I have been publishing these articles since May 2021. After slightly more than a year, the series has finally drawn to a close. These articles will continue to be hosted on Medium and you are all welcome to read them at any time. You can contact me via email or DM: facebook.com/variyambooks or twitter.com/Variyam5. My grateful thanks to all of you who have walked with me on this journey, discovering Kerala’s ancient ties to pharaonic Egypt. Your commentaries, reviews, readership, and encouragement have sustained me through this past year.

Much work needs to be done to continue this study. I am posting here the entire bibliography that I used for my research in the sincere hope that some bright-eyed fresh-minded historians in mainstream academia will take it forward and shine more light on Kerala’s ancient trans-oceanic link with pharaonic Egypt. Why? Because Kerala’s historical narrative has always been politically charged, from the Nambutiri transcribers who first rewrote it, coloring it with the prejudices of their own times, to the British who, in solidarity with the so-called “Aryan” theory, tailored laws to perpetuate a false myth of brahmin hegemony, to the natives who upheld that lie to justify a social revolution. Needless to say, much grief has been wrought, much spirit has been crushed, many lives have been destroyed over countless centuries for this doctored history. The politicization makes one wonder how things could have been different had Kerala’s memoir been developed by a more neutral narrator. Thus, it is imperative that history be studied correctly and well; the story of our lives depend on it.

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